Srimad-Bhagavatam 7.9.10 Prabhupada: viprad dvi-sad-guna-yutad aravinda-nabha-padaravinda-vimukhat svapacam varistham manye tad-arpita-mano-vacanehitartha-pranam punati sa-kulam na tu bhurimanah This verse we have been discussing. (aside:) You can open. So vipra. Vipra means one who is fully conversant with Vedic knowledge. He is called vipra. For spiritual elevation there are gradual evolutionary stages. So vipra stage is just before becoming a qualified brahmana. That is called vipra. The first stage, by birth everyone is sudra. Sudra means affected by the miseries of this world. He is sudra. Socati. The material condition is full of anxiety, so anyone who is full of anxiety, he is sudra. This is the… So if you analyze the present society, that who is not anxiety, full of anxiety, oh, nobody will say that “I am not full of anxiety.” “I have got so many anxieties.” So that means he is a sudra. Kalau sudra-sambhavah: “In this age, everyone is sudra.” That is concluded. A brahmana is not afraid. He is not anxious because he is dependent on God. He knows that “I have surrendered unto God completely, and He is all-powerful. Therefore I have no anxiety.” Just like a small child, he has no anxiety. Why? Because he is completely dependent on the parents. He knows confidently that in any danger, “Oh, my mother is there.” As soon as he feels there is some danger, “Mother!” That’s all. Finished. Similarly, one who is completely confident that “The supreme father is there. He will protect me, give me protection,” so he has no anxiety. Narayana-parah sarve na kutascana bibhyati. When one is fully confident about God consciousness or Krsna consciousness, he is not afraid, not even afraid of death, because he knows that he has no death. He is eternal. So to come to this platform of confidence or Krsna consciousness, there is training. That training is called viddhi-marga, regulative principles, following the regulative principles. So this whole varnasrama system, Vedic system, the different caste—brahmana, ksatriya, vaisya, sudra, a brahmacari, grhastha, vanaprastha, sannyasa—they are very scientifically designed to elevate one gradually to the standard of “no fear,” “fearfulnessless,” no more fear, confident. So vipra means just the previous stage of becoming completely a brahmana. Janmana jayate sudrah: “By birth everyone is born a sudra.” Samskarad bhaved dvijah: “When he goes to the spiritual master and the spiritual master initiates him, at that time his second birth is there, dvija.” Dvija. The birds are called also dvija because they get twice birth. Once they come as egg, the form of birth in the egg, and then, when they come out from the egg and the shell, break the shell and come out, that is real life. Similarly, we are in the egg, within the shell of ignorance. So when we come out from the shell of ignorance, that is our second birth. The first birth is by father and mother, and the second birth is by the spiritual master and Vedic knowledge. There is also mother. The Vedic knowledge is mother, and the spiritual master is the father. So samskarad bhaved dvijah. The spiritual master trains the student gradually. That is called initiation. That is called dvija. Janmana jayate sudrah: “By birth by the father and mother, everyone is sudra.” It doesn’t matter where he takes his birth, not that only India they are brahmana, ksatriya, vaisya, sudra. Everywhere. Catur-varnyam maya srstam guna-karma-vibhagasah [Bg. 4.13]. In the Bhagavad-gita you’ll find that these four system of social division—brahmana, ksatriya, vaisya, sudra—they are all over the universe, not that… Don’t think that it is in India. Everywhere. So samskarad bhaved dvijah. By reformation, by following the regulative principle of how to elevate oneself to the knowledge of Brahman… That is called samskara. There are ten kinds of samskaras, reformatory. This Vedic system is very scientific system to elevate the humankind to the highest perfection of life. So samskarad bhaved dvijah. Then, when the samskara is given, when his, the spiritual master sees that “This boy is now competent to study Vedas…” That requires a qualification. A sudra is not allowed to study Vedas. There is restriction. Sometimes they think injustice, that “Why sudras?” That is modern convention. Actually that is very nice. What a sudra can understand Vedas? To the sudras, a different type of knowledge… Just like the same thing, that the two plus two in the lower class is different from the two plus two in the higher mathematics. So sudra cannot understand. So one has to become brahmana, vipra at least, dvija, twice-birth by initiation. Then he is allowed to study. Then he will be able to understand the language of… It is not injustice that sudras are not… Just like… I do not know what is the system in your country, but in India, one who is not a graduate, he is not allowed to study law. If one, anyone wants to study law, if he wants to enter into the law college, then he must be a graduate first of all, at least B.A. Otherwise he cannot. So if somebody says, “It is injustice,” why? “Everyone should.” Everyone cannot understand. Similarly, without being initiated by proper spiritual master, nobody can understand. The Vedas is not like that: you purchase a book, the Bhagavad-gita or Bhagavata, and study at home, and you learn. Oh, it is not possible just like simply by purchasing some medical books and study at home you cannot become a doctor, medical man. That is not possible. Neither you can become a lawyer. The books are available in the market, but that is not the process. You have to enter yourself in an institution, take lessons from the professors, must attend lecture classes, seventy- five percent at least. Then you are allowed to sit in the examination. So the gradual process… First birth is sudra, anyone. It doesn’t matter. Even if he is born of a brahmana father, he is considered a sudra. So then, by initiation, he becomes dvija, second birth. Then he is allowed to study the Vedic literatures, and when he is conversant with the studies of Vedic literature, he is called vipra. And when one has become a vipra—because that is the just previous stage of becoming a brahmana—he acquires twelve kinds of qualities. Satya-sama-dama-titiksa. The first quality is truthfulness. The second quality is controlling the senses. Controlling the mind. Sama-dama-titiksa, to be very tolerant; arjava, very simple; full of knowledge; full of theism; so many qualities. These qualities are mentioned. So here Prahlada Maharaja says, viprad dvi-sad-guna-yutat. When one is a vipra, that means he has got all the good qualities, material good qualities. He is truthful. He is conversant with the science of religion. He knows what is God, what is Brahman. He is self-controlled. He is not sensual. So many good qualities. So Prahlada Maharaja says that “Even one has attained the stage of becoming a vipra, and he has acquired all the good qualities required for becoming a vipra, but if he is lacking one quality…” What is that? Viprad dvi-sad-guna-yuta aravinda-nabha padaravinda-vimukhat: “But he is adverse to God consciousness, or Krsna consciousness. He has got all the good qualities, he has studied Vedas, but if he is not God conscious…” Padaravinda. Aravinda-nabha padaravinda. Aravinda-nabha. Nabha means this navel, and aravinda means lotus. You know that the creation is made by the navel of Visnu, the first sprouting of the lotus flower- like planet, and there is Brahma, and he creates other things. So therefore, aravinda-nabha, “the Supreme Personality of Godhead, whose navel has the lotus flower,” aravinda-nabha. And padaravinda: “And His feet is also just like lotus, aravinda.” Aravinda-nabha aravinda-pada. That means Supreme Personality of Godhead. So a vipra, a qualified person with all good qualities, material qualities, if he is lacking the simple quality that he is not conversant with the science of God, vimukhat, he is not very serious to understand what is God… That is the position. Now, at the present moment, everyone is highly educated to the material standard, but they have no knowledge what is God. So even they become vipra, because they are lacking this knowledge, Prahlada Maharaja says that a person, a dog-eater who has God consciousness is better than him. Svapacam varistham. Svapaca means a person who is born in the family of dog-eaters. Svapacam varistham. Manye tad-arpita-mano-vacanehitartha. There is description, mauna-vijnana-santosa-satyastika-dvisad-gunan, yad va samo damas tapo saucam ksanti arjava viraktatah. Mauna-vijnana-santosa-satyastika-dvisad-gunan. The eleven, twelve qualities, good qualities, is described in the Vedic literature. What is this? That sama. Sama means the equilibrium of the mind. Dama. Dama means controlling the senses. Samo damas tapah, austerity. Tapa means… Tapa means from tapa, heat. Just like this heat is not tolerable. I require the fan. So tapa means to accept voluntarily some physical trouble. That is called tapa. There are many sages who, in, during summer, they will burn fire all sides and meditate. There is already high temperature, 112 degrees in India. Sometimes 180 degree, and still they have fire all sides, all sides. Yes. And they are meditating, not disturbed. So this is called voluntarily tapa. And in winter season, when the temperature is forty degrees, fifty degrees, is of course, not below zero, anyway, he goes to the water and dip into the water simply keeping the mouth up and meditating. So there are some severe processes for tapasya. So this is one of the good qualities. But in this age it is very difficult. To undergo such voluntary tribulations for realization, self-realization, meditation is not possible in this age. Therefore the Vedic injunction is that “You simply chant Hare Krsna.” Harer nama harer nama harer nama eva kevalam [Adi 17.21]. You don’t have to take any botheration. In whatever position you are, you just try to consent in your mind to hear the sound of Hare Krsna, best type of meditation, because it is not possible to acquire all these qualities, tapa. So samo-damas-tapa-saucam. Saucam means cleanliness, hygienic principles, to take bath thrice, at least once, daily. Therefore to keep no hair is better. You wash, there is no question of moisture in the hair. And those who have got big hairs, they cannot take daily bath. But if you keep your bald-headed, there is no trouble. Saucam. So bathing is required, taking bath daily, saucam. And ksanti. Ksanti means toleration. Because this world is full of miseries, and you have to execute Krsna consciousness in this condition… Krsna advised in the Bhagavad-gita, Arjuna, that… Because the topic was on the body, so Arjuna said, “Accepting that the soul is immortal and it never dies, still, if some relative dies, we feel pain. Is it not a fact?” Krsna said, “Yes, it is a fact.” Even if I know that my son is dead, my son is not dead. The soul of my son is departed from this body to another body. So there is no cause of anxiety. He has got another body, but still, I feel, “Oh, my son…,” for the body, because I am accustomed to love my son by the body. So this concession should be allowed. If somebody is crying, that does not mean he is a fool, but it is material affection. So Krsna advises that this ksanti, titiksa, toleration. How toleration? Sitosna-sukha-duhkha-dah. Just like we tolerate there is severe cold. There is no use fighting and howling, “Oh, there is so much cold, so much cold, so much.” You have to tolerate. You cannot fight. matra-sparsas tu kaunteya sitosna-sukha-duhkha-dah agamapayino ’nityas tams titiksasva bharata He advised, “Yes, I understand there are pains and pleasures like that, but they have to be tolerated. You cannot be disturbed. You have to execute your business of Krsna consciousness. If there is any trouble, you must know no trouble or no happiness exists because this is material. It has come. It will go. So for the time being, don’t be mad after happiness and don’t be mad after miseries.” Agamapayina: “They come and go.” Just like nowadays it is very hot. This season will change, and again we will be disturbed by cold. So disturbance will continue, either heat or cold due to this material body, matra-sparsa, due to this skin attachment. So we have to tolerate. So one who is actually vipra, he is tolerant. He is not disturbed by these material tribulations, ksanti, arjavam. Simple, very simple. Duplicity is very bad qualification for spiritual advancement. We have got a tendency for cheating, everyone, conditioned soul. That should be minimized. This is called arjavam. Arjavam means sad-rata. And viraktata, detachment. The whole system is detachment from matter. If we are too much attached… Or why too much? Even if we are slightly attached to this material life, then we have to accept this body, any kind of body, this body or that body. There are 8,400,000 types of bodies. So, so long we’ll have a slight attachment for this material enjoyment, sense enjoyment, we will have to accept a certain type of body. Therefore this vairagya, viraktata, detachment from matter, is the whole basic principle of spiritual realization. So this Krsna consciousness process is simultaneously detachment from matter and attachment for Krsna. It is so nice system. It is so nice. Just like we have to increase our love for Krsna. The proportionately we increase our love for Krsna, we decrease our love for matter. So I have got a spirit to love. That I cannot stop. Similarly, there are many examples. Just like a boy or a girl. If he, she increases the love for another boy, another girl, he decreases the love for other boys and girls. This is natural. Similarly, if you increase your love for Krsna, then you decrease your love for nonsense. So vairagya, this detachment from matter, is automatically done. We have got the propensity to love something, at least a dog if not God. So if we turn our face to the loving attachment to Krsna, then param drstva nivartate. That is stated in the Bhagavad-gita, param drstva nivartate. If you are given better thing… Just like in children. He is loving something, but if you give him something better, something red, oh, he is attached immediately. He gives up the old thing and takes up the red thing. So you cannot… The jnana system, the yoga system is by force they are trying to detach. That is not possible. It may be possible for the time being. Just like Visvamitra, a great sage. These are the historical references. He was a very great king and he wanted to realize self, and he began to meditate in the forest alone, as it is, this yoga system, that “He must be in secluded life. He must make his seat in a very sacred place and sit in this posture.” There are… So he followed everything completely, perfect yogi. But as soon as Indra saw that “This man is performing a great yoga system. He may not acquire my position,” so he sent one beautiful girl, Menaka, to entice him. So she came, she began to dance before her (him), and there was tinkling sound, and at once his meditation broke. And she was very beautiful, coming from heaven, so he became attached, and the woman became pregnant. Then she got a child, Sakuntala, and then Visvamitra came to this senses: “Oh, I left my kingdom, I came to forest for meditation. Again I am going to be another kingdom.” So he decided that “I shall go away.” So Menaka tried to entice him, “Oh, why you shall go? You just see how nice girl you have got. Just see.” There is a picture. Perhaps you have seen. And Visvamitra is doing like this: “Don’t show me anymore. Let me go away.” Of course, he was very much advanced. He could go. But this allurement is always there. But Krsna is so beautiful and so nice that if you increase your love for Krsna, then you have no more any attachment for anything, any beautiful thing of this world. Param drstva nivartate. Just like Krsna and these gopis. They came to Krsna, giving up their all engagements. Some of them were engaged in, I mean to say, loving children, some of them were engaged in serving their husband, or unmarried girls, they were engaged to serving her father, brothers. But as soon as Krsna blew His flute, they came, all. So similarly, if our attachment becomes very nice, very mature for Krsna, then this viraktata, or detachment for material things, will automatically happen. But that is required, viraktata. And maunam. Mauna. Mauna means don’t talk, grave. This is also very good qualification because generally, when we talk, we simply talk nonsense. That’s all. We shall sit together and some friends or family, some useless talks, we shall go on for hours together. But if you are called to talk about Krsna or Bhagavad-gita or Bhagavata, this philosophy, nobody will come. So better not to talk. It is better not to talk than to talk nonsense, foolish. So generally, we are accustomed to talks, enjoy foolish talks, which has no meaning, neither any benefit for this material world, neither any benefit for spiritual world. If you are, of course, gaining something material benefit… Just like businessmen talk. They talk seriously if there is any profit. Otherwise the secretary says, “Oh, the Mr. such and such has no time to see you.” That is also some good because time is so valuable. So why should we talk nonsense? So that is also very good qualification if you don’t talk nonsense. Either you talk about Krsna or don’t talk. That is called mauna. If there is no subject matter for talking on the subject of Krsna, then it is better not to talk. But we have got very nice engagement. We can talk Hare Krsna. If you have no other engagement, then we have got these beads, “Hare Krsna, Hare Krsna, Krsna Krsna…” You can day and night, twenty-four hours, go on. This is called mauna. And vijnana. Vijnana means perfect knowledge. What is that perfect knowledge? Perfect knowledge means to know Krsna. Yasmin vijnate sarvam evam vijnatam bhavati. The Vedic injunction is: “If you can understand the Supreme, then you understand the whole thing, because Supreme is the whole, absolute.” Just like if you can understand one, two, three, four, five, six, eight, nine, zero, then you can understand the whole mathematics, because what is mathematics? One, two, three, four, three, four, one, two, just like that. That’s all. The same nine figures, that’s all. Similarly, the Vedas says, yasmin vijnate sarvam evam vijnatam bhavati. If you simply try to understand the Supreme Absolute Truth, that is the purpose of Vedas. And it is confirmed in the Bhagavad-gita also, vedais ca sarvair aham eva vedyam [Bg. 15.15]. What is the use of studying Vedas? What is the use of studying this Bhagavata or…? To understand Krsna. That’s all. So here it is stated that maunam vijnanam santosa. Santosa. This is the result. If you are perfect in knowledge of Krsna, then you are satisfied. Satisfied. Yasmin sthito gurunapi duhkhena na vicalyate. In the Bhagavad-gita it is said, yam labdhva caparam labham manyate nadhikam tatah: “If one attains to the perfection of Krsna consciousness, then he has no more to understand anything.” Yam labdhva caparam. He does not want any more profit in any way. He thinks that “I am completely…” Yasmin sthite, and the test is that if one is situated in Krsna consciousness, then gurunapi duhkhena… Because the world, this material world, we are always in trouble. So a person situated in Krsna consciousness is not troubled at all, even if he is put into very trying circumstances. Gurunapi duhkhena. This is the test. That is called santosa, and satya, truthfulness, astikya. Astikya means belief, faith, faith in scripture, faith in God. That is called faith. This is faith. And when that faith is very much concentrated, then one can understand Krsna. Visvasa sabde sudrdha-niscaya, krsne bhakti kaile sarva-karma krta haya. This is called strong faith or firm faith. What is that firm faith? When one is convinced that “If I am Krsna conscious, then all my duties will be perfect.” And that is the fact. Samsiddhir hari-tosanam [SB 1.2.13]. As I have several times spoken in this meeting, that “Let everyone be engaged to his specific duty. It doesn’t matter what it is. But if you want to see that whether your function is perfected, then you have to test it, whether by your activities Krsna is satisfied.” Samsiddhir hari-tosanam. Svanusthitasya dharmasya samsiddhir hari-tosanam [SB 1.2.13] So this santosa. If you think that Krsna is satisfied… How you can know Krsna is satisfied? Yasya prasadad bhagavat-prasadah: ** “If you can satisfy your spiritual master, then you should know that Krsna is satisfied.” Yasya prasadad bhagavat-prasadah **. So if you are fortunate enough to have a bona fide spiritual master and if you can satisfy him, then you know that you have satisfied Krsna. This is the process. So we shall talk next week. Yes. Any questions? [break] No question? You have understood everything? Yes. Guest (1): I’d like to ask. A vipra means he has the twelve qualifications, and he also has the qualification of faith. I don’t understand exactly what it means when Prahlada Maharaja says that I should be meditating on a follower who has no faith in God or God watching him.(?) Prabhupada: No. A vipra, because he is studying… Vipra means one who is engaged in the studies of Vedas. That is… Veda-pathad bhaved viprah. So if he is studying Vedas, then must be qualified with all the good qualities. Because just like Bhagavad-gita, it is said that “These are the good qualities.” So study means to accept the instruction. Study does not mean simply to become a book… No. Study means to apply practically in life what you learn from the Vedas. So if anyone is seriously studying, then naturally he is qualified with all the good qualities. Yes. No. You can say. Devotee: (indistinct) believe in themselves or have faith on that or believe on that… Prabhupada: That in the material world there are three qualities: the quality of goodness, the quality of passion, the quality of ignorance. These three qualities are working. We see varieties in this material world due to the interaction of these three qualities. So there are varieties of men. Some of them are in good quality, some of them are in quality of passion, some of them are in the quality of ignorance. Therefore they have got different types of faith also, not that your faith or my faith may be the same, because you may be in the quality of goodness, I may be in the quality of passion or ignorance. So faith is according to the particular quality of the person who is professing that faith. So the sattvic faith, the faith in goodness, that is faith in Brahman, the Supreme. That is called goodness, brahminical faith. And above this… This is sattvic. Sattvic means goodness. So goodness… In the material world even goodness is sometimes contaminated with tinges of passion and ignorance. herefore in the material world nothing can be in pure goodness. So one has to transcend the goodness platform of this material world and come to the platform of pure goodness, suddha-sattva, where there is no more contamination of passion and ignorance. That platform is called God consciousness, or Krsna consciousness. Guest (2): Is faith in God more necessary than proper protection?(?) In other words, is this process actually more necessary? Prabhupada: Well, when one has got faith in God he must have the necessary activities. Otherwise what kind of faith it is? Just like if I say that “I have faith in you, but I don’t trust you,” what kind of faith I have got? If I say, “My dear friend, I have faith in you,” and if you want me to do something, I don’t do it, then if I say, “How can I do it?” then what kind of faith that is? So this sort of faith is not required. Faith means real faith. So whenever there is real faith, there is activity also. That is faith. When there is real Krsna consciousness, God consciousness, then there is activity for pleasing the God. Simply I believe in God simply for exacting things from God, that is a different type of faith. That is in the lowest stage. Just like a small child, he has got faith, but if a learned educated child, he has got different faith, “Oh, my father, my mother they have done so much for us,” he wants to repay. He wants to oblige the father. That is also another faith, the same faith. So somebody is trying, “O God, give us our daily bread.” This is also faith, but somebody is trying how to please God. He is not asking… Because he knows that “If God is father, then he is supplying bread to animals, to birds and beasts. Why not to me? So my bread is already guaranteed. So let me serve the father.” This is higher type of faith. “Why shall I ask, bother my father? If he is father, then he has already made arrangement for my eating.” That is natural. Does it mean that every day the child asks father, mother, “Mother, father, give me my bread.” Oh, the father is already preparing bread for you. He’ll call you. But he is lacking the faith. He is asking. Another is not asking. He is confident that “Father will give me bread. Now let me serve my father.” This is higher type of faith. So the faith, there are different standards of faith. One faith is trying to exact, and one faith is trying to give everything. So these two types of faith. So which one is better? Anyone can judge. Just like Arjuna, in the beginning he had faith in Krsna. He said, “Krsna, please give me instruction. I am not talking any more as friend. I accept You as my spiritual master.” So he had faith, good faith. Otherwise how he accepted Krsna as spiritual master? But that faith in the beginning, and at the last faith, after learning Bhagavad-gita, he said, “Krsna, by Your grace I have got my memory.” That means, “In the beginning I was thinking that I should give more importance to my grandfather, my teacher and my family, but I have learned that my only duty is to serve You. Therefore whatever You say, I’ll do.” This is another faith. The same man, the same Krsna—in the beginning, one faith, and at the end, another faith. So beginning faith is that God, understanding God. But unfortunately, at the present moment they don’t believe in God, so there is no question of faith. They have lost all faith. This is the condition of the present society. What to speak of this faith or that faith, they have no faith. They have lost all faith, just like animal. Animal has no faith in God. That is the distinction between human being and animal. The animal has no faith, but in human society there is a kind of faith, either it is Christian faith or Hindu faith or Buddhist faith or Muhammadan faith. But when we give up this faith, then our position is just like animal. The present society is just like animals. They have no faith, what to speak of this faith or that faith. That is the position. They are simply after sense enjoyment. That’s all. Don’t you see? The Pope says that it is not good, it is not God’s law, that you should use contraceptive method. But they are so mad after sense enjoyment, they say, “Oh, we don’t care for your instruction.” Just see how much they have lost their faith. So at the present moment it is very difficult position, no faith at all. [break] …have no good qualification. Harav abhaktasya kuto mahad-guna [SB 5.18.12]. Oh, their education, their scientific advancement, their so-called civilization… Don’t you see? The everyone is expected to have national feeling, but the postal strike, mail strike went on for twenty days. The whole nation became disturbed and harassed. Why? They wanted money. “What is this? Go to… Your national feeling go to hell! You pay us. Then we work.” So nobody has any faith. Simply he has faith in sense gratification. That’s all. “You satisfy my senses. Then you are very good. Otherwise, go to hell.” That’s all. This is the position. And therefore they are denying the topmost head of Catholic Church, “We don’t care for your instruction,” because they have become faithless. And that is not their fault. It is fault of the heads of the churches. They did not teach them properly. They were satisfied simply by money. That’s all. They did not try to teach them. Now what is the use of teaching? They have gone out of hand. The same thing: if you want to bend bamboo, do it while it is green. And when it is dried, oh, it is not possible. So now the whole society is faithless, godless, very precarious condition. So this process, our process, we don’t impose any difficult rules and regulation. Please come here and chant with us and dance with us. At least, there is no loss on your part. If you think there is no gain, but at least there is no loss. So I should request you to come and join with us in our kirtana. Then everything gradually will be clear. Any other question? Pradyumna: Does straightforwardness, that arjavam quality of a brahmana, does that include making the truth palatable to someone who will not understand the truth directly? Prabhupada: Yes. When you speak of higher truths, you don’t care whether it is palatable to others or not. In social formality you can see. That has happened actually. Because the Pope, he was not strong enough in the beginning… Because some other Pope, he thought, “It may be unpalatable,” he did not speak the truth. Now the other Pope is speaking the truth. They are not accepting. But from the very beginning the priests should have preached in every church, “My dear Christian brothers, you cannot use these contraceptive methods.” They were never told in the churches. They were satisfied to get fees. That’s all. Everywhere, not only in the Christian world. In the Hindu, in Christian, they don’t care for any rules and regulations any more. But they profess that “I am Christian,” “I am Hindu,” “I am Muhammadan.” (end)
by His Divine Grace A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada
Montreal, July 10, 1968